FareShare Cooking Educational Segment

Boiling Water

So, you think you know how to boil water?

Well, when it comes to cooking it may be more complicated than you thought.

Recently a TV cook explained that it doesn't matter how high you turn up the heat under a pot of water it will never get hotter than the boiling point therefore, it makes no sense to cook vegetables with the heat turned to maximum so the water bubbles furiously. Your food will cook just as fast at a simmer so once your veggies are heated to the point where the water continues to boil you may as well conserve your fuel and lower the heat to the point where the water is just boiling.

It is easy to see when water reaches the boiling point but just how hot IS that? This is where we delve into the realm of basic physics (now don't you wish you had paid more attention in school). At sea level the boiling point is 212 degrees Fahrenheit or 100 degrees Celsius/Centigrade. Air pressure is an important factor and at 1000 feet (305 meters) ABOVE sea level the boiling point lowers to 210F (99C) so boiling water is cooler by 2F (1C) for every 1000 feet (305 meters) in altitude above sea level. This is why it takes longer to boil an egg when you're camping in the mountains than it does when you are camping on the beach at the ocean. Of course the reverse happens if you are camping in Death Valley which is below sea level which brings us to another interesting point - using a pressure cooker. A pressure cooker traps the steam that rises from the boiling water, thereby increasing the pressure on the water which raises the boiling point. A maximum temperature of 250F (120C) can be obtained in this manner. You can get the same result by doing your cooking in an open pot about 19,000 feet or 5,800 meters BELOW sea level (not tried by me <G>).

OK, let's add another piece to the puzzle. If you add a water-soluble substance, such as salt or sugar, to the water you will raise the boiling point and lower the freezing point, not of the water itself but of the solution. Now isn't this fun! However, don't despair, in the amounts we use in normal cooking the effect is minor enough not to be particularly important. One ounce of salt in a quart of water (about the same as sea water) will only raise the boiling point one degree Fahrenheit so I don't think we need to stay up nights worrying about it but I felt it was worth mentioning. Speaking of the salinity of sea water, you might want to keep in mind that because of the salt it is a really, really bad idea to fall off a cruise ship in the vicinity of either the north or south poles because the water can be several degrees BELOW freezing and still be in liquid form (just a little travel tip <G>). Many people insist that you shouldn't add salt to water before you heat it as it will take longer to reach the boil, however, while this is true and may be important in a laboratory because it does raise the boiling point, the amount of salt you are likely to add to cooking water is so small that any difference in the time it takes a pot of water to reach the boil is insignificant; therefore you can add the salt as soon as you put the water into the pot without worrying about being "salt correct". On the other hand, when you are making candy you DO add a lot of sugar to the water and this solution can become very much hotter than the temperature of boiling water alone which is why people have experienced some very nasty burns. A sugar syrup that is 20 percent sugar by weight boils at about 212F (100C) while a sugar syrup that is 90 percent sugar by weight boils at 250F (125C) at sea level; as you cook the solution it becomes more concentrated so the temperature goes up.

Some foods cook better below the boiling point. Some fish and meats are best cooked at temperatures about 140F (60C) in order to obtain the best texture. If they are cooked at higher temperatures the outside cooks first to the point of overcooking sufficiently to become tough before the inside is cooked. Food will need to be cooked longer at the lower temperature, however. A good temperature in order to cook things gently as well as efficiently, is 180F or 80C (use a thermometer for accuracy), which is a compromise between boiling and cooking at the lower temperature mentioned above.

We haven't discussed the different effects of water hardness (or softness) which are very important factors to every cook but I think we should leave that for another time as I can see your eyes are beginning to glaze over.

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Simply Sourdough by Joan Ross

Sourdough is the oldest and most original form of leavened bread. The oldest recorded use of sourdough most likely originated during ancient Egyptian civilization. Simply discovered by accident, wild yeasts in the air settled into the flour and water mixture and the processes of fermentation and leavening began.

The natural sugars present in the flour when mixed with water and the wild yeasts converted in lactic and other acids which gave the bread a unique sour flavor. In the fermentation process, alcohol and carbon dioxide were given off. The carbon dioxide bubbles got trapped in the bread structure and caused the bread to rise and give off the characteristic lacy holes many sourdough breads have. Sourdough loves an acidic environment.

Through trial and error during man's civilization, people discovered which cultures produced the best bread with the best flavor. They saved part of the raw bread dough and fed it more flour and water to which we know as the sourdough culture, starter or "the mother".

Historically, cultures have survived this way for generations. Sourdough culture is indeed a true survivor. The trappers, gold miners and cowboys of North America often patched up holes in the walls of their cabins with the sourdough culture. It dried hard as rock, yet could be chiseled off and reconstituted with water to make a viable culture again.

True, 100% sourdough contains no commercial yeast as do other types of fermented doughs. Some sourdough purists feel if yeast is used in the recipe, then it is not an authentic sourdough. Others feel adding a touch of commercial yeast will not change the flavor but produce a more stable rise in the bread. This is an ongoing debate with many sourdough bakers. My personal philosophy is bake bread the way you enjoy it.

The simplest recipes using sourdough cultures (usually excess cultures) are sourdough pancakes, waffles, cakes and biscuits which require little preparation effort, no rising and short cooking and baking times. However to produce a good loaf of true sourdough bread can be a challenge. A good loaf needs one's patience, proper preparation and kneading and especially long (many, many hours) rising times to produce a unique bread with good sour flavor, height and texture.

To start your sourdough adventure; obtain a reliable culture. Sure one can try capturing wild yeasts from the air but it is best to start with a consistent reliable culture in the long run.

I have been using Carl Griffith's Oregon Trail Starter since 1995. This culture produces a wonderful sour flavor and is very reliable. Here is the link to obtain this free culture: http://home.att.net/~carlsfriends. (---> This is some of the dried culture - not a recipe. H.)

There you can read about its history, get links to other sourdough bread pages and view bread photographs using The Oregon Trail culture. I am one of many volunteers to help perpetuate the existence of this sourdough culture.

Go to my sourdough web page: http://mysite.verizon.net/vzeomllb/id8.html to view my sourdough primer which contains all my tips, many wonderful recipes, hints and miscellaneous sourdough information.

Here is a wonderful formula posted from my web page, to help you convert any of your favorite yeast bread recipes into true sourdough recipes.

Sourdough Conversion Formula

This basic method (with some of my changes) comes from Sourdough Jack's Cookery (1959) and is a reliable technique that will turn your favorite bread and roll recipes into a very good sourdough one. You must have a good reliable, active and bubbly starter. Try you favorite one loaf recipe such as white bread, Anadama bread, oatmeal bread or any yeast white flour bread, bun or roll recipe. All come out very well using the conversion technique.

1. Place one cup of your favorite active sourdough starter in a large bowl with about 2/3 of the total flour called for in your bread or roll recipe. Add all the milk or water to make a stirable thick batter. You don't want a dough but a batter.

2. Cover the bowl and set aside the mixture in a warm place for 14 to 16 hours. The longer it stands, the more sour it gets. This sponge mixture will get bubbly and light.

3. Now add all the additional ingredients (such as salt, sugar, oil, eggs etc.) called for in your recipe except the remaining flour. Do not include any yeast or baking soda - omit them! Please trust your sourdough starter. If your starter is bubbly and active, the recipe will turn out okay.

4. Add the remaining flour, mix and knead well by hand, adding additional flour only if necessary to make a soft, pliable, non sticky dough. Dough will be smooth and elastic but just a bit softer than your typical yeast dough recipes.

5. Let the dough rest 10 minutes, covered.

6. Form your dough into a loaf (or loaves) and place dough in the pan(s) or how your recipe instructs.

7. Let the dough rise, to the tops of the pan(s) or until light and puffy in a warm place. Patience - this takes much longer than standard yeast dough recipes - often many, many hours (even 8 to 12 hours or more)!

8. Bake and cool as your recipe instructs. Your bread should have a nice soft interior, a good chewy crust and that special sourdough tang.

9. For tips using sourdough cultures please visit my web page. I have a very specific Sourdough Primer which I hope answers all kinds of questions related to sourdough culture, it's activation, preservation and uses.

Contributed to the Educational/Household Hints segment of the FareShare
Gazette by Joan; 16 April 2008.

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Cooking at High Altitudes

Altitude has a most definite effect on how foods cook. Some foods take longer to cook and others require some adjustment in the ingredients. There are some basic guidelines but often success only comes with experimentation partly because some ingredients, such as flours, vary from brand to brand; partly, in the case of vegetables, because of variation in the size and maturity; partly due to variations in humidity (make sure you keep your flour in air-tight containers so it doesn't dry out too much). There are things that just won't work out at higher altitudes such as some delicate cakes that were developed for conditions at sea level so the only solution is to forget about those recipes and look for others that are of a sturdier composition. In general cookie recipes adapt fairly well to different altitudes but they can often benefit from a little higher baking temperature and some reduction in the amount of baking powder (or baking soda), fat, sugar and/or a little more liquid and flour. In a pamphlet on high-altitude cooking published by the New Mexico State University (Guide E-215), the author A. J. Hendley suggests that since many cookie recipes contain more sugar and fat than necessary a more nutritious cookie with fewer calories can be made by replacing up to 1/4 of the sugar called for with nonfat dry milk powder without any loss in the quality of the resulting cookies.

The time required to hard-cook an egg at 5000 feet is about 25 minutes following this method: place the cold eggs into a saucepan; cover with cool water; cover the pot and set the heat to high; when the water reaches a gentle simmer reduce the heat to a low setting. To cook a "3-minute" egg at 5000 feet will probably take about 5 to 6 minutes.

Some adjustments recommended for cakes and other baked items that require leavening agents are given below. I have given the American measures as well as an exact conversion to the metric measures. However, because different recipes contain different proportions of these ingredients there is no hard and fast rule so some experimentation is always going to be necessary. Make notes of the changes you try and when you have a successful result be sure to keep a record of what you did.

Flour. A higher-gluten all-purpose flour is preferable because it is stronger. Here is a guide for adjusting flour according to altitude; make sure to sift before you measure. The adjustments are per cup of flour.

At altitudes of 3500 to 5000 feet (1066.8 to 1524 meters)
increase the flour by 1 tablespoon (15 mL)
At altitudes of 5000 to 6500 feet (1524 to 1981.2 meters)
increase the flour by 2 tablespoons (30 mL)
At altitudes of 6500 to 8000 feet (1981.2 to 2434.4 meters)
increase the flour by 3 tablespoons (45 mL)
At altitudes of 8000 feet (2434.4 meters) and above
increase the flour by 4 tablespoons (60 mL)

Baking powder, baking soda or both (make the adjustments in each if both are used).
At 3000 feet (914.4 meters) decrease the amount for each teaspoon (5 mL)
by 1/8 teaspoon (0.625 mL)
At 5000 feet (1524 meters) decrease the amount for each teaspoon (5 mL)
by 1/8 to 1/4 teaspoon (0.625 to 1 mL)
At 7000 feet (2133.6 meters) decrease the amount for each teaspoon (5 mL)
by 1/4 teaspoon (1 mL)

Sugar.
At 3000 feet (914.4 meters) decrease the amount for each cup (250 mL)
by 0 to 1 tablespoon (0 to 15 mL)
At 5000 feet (1524 meters) decrease the amount for each cup (250 mL)
by 0 to 2 tablespoons (0 to 30 mL)
At 7000 feet (2133.6 meters) decrease the amount for each cup (250 mL)
by 1 to 3 tablespoons (15 to 45 mL)

Liquids.
At 3000 feet (914.4 meters) increase the amount for each cup (250 mL)
by 1 teaspoon to 2 tablespoons (5 to 30 mL)
At 5000 feet (1524 meters) increase the amount for each cup (250 mL)
by 2 to 4 tablespoons (30 to 60 mL)
At 7000 feet (2133.6 meters) increase the amount for each cup (250 mL)
by 3 to 4 tablespoons (45 to 60 mL)

Some notes on making candy. This might be a good time to remind you of the essay on water that appeared in the FareShare Gazette a couple of months ago (and is also on our website thanks to Art) where some information appeared about the boiling points of water at different altitudes since this has very direct implications on candy making. The sooner a liquid reaches the boiling point the sooner loss of that liquid through evaporation occurs, thus since at altitudes above sea level (which is where most candy recipes are developed) the boiling point always occurs at temperatures below 212F (100C), adjustments will have to be made to compensate for this or the sugar levels will become too concentrated. If you are using a candy thermometer the first thing to do is to check the boiling point of water at your location; then you will have to reduce the finish temperature of the candy by the difference between 212F (100C) and your local boiling point. Of course, if you are using the cold-water test it doesn't matter since it only depends on the appearance of the candy in the water. Here are some suggested adjustments for different types of candy.

Creamy candies and filling. Cold-water test: Soft Ball.
Finish temperatures: Sea level (0 meters) - 234-240F (112-115C)
2000 feet (610 meters) - 230-236F (110-113C)
5000 feet (1524 meters) - 224-230F (107-113C)
7000 feet (2134 meters) - 219-225F (104-107C)
Chewy candies. Cold-water test: Firm Ball
Finish temperatures: Sea level (0 meters) - 242-248F (117-120C)
2000 feet (610 meters) - 238-244F (114-118C)
5000 feet (1524 meters) - 232-238F (111-114C)
7000 feet (2134 meters) - 227-233F (108-112C)
Pulled candies, fillings, frostings with egg whites.
Cold-water test: Hard Ball
Finish temperatures: Sea level (0 meters) - 250-268F (121-131C)
2000 feet (610 meters) - 246-264F (119-129C)
5000 feet (1524 meters) - 240-248F (116-120C)
7000 feet (2134 meters) - 235-253F (113-123C)
Toffees. Cold-water test: Soft Crack
Finish temperatures: Sea level (0 meters) - 270-290F (132-143C)
2000 feet (610 meters) - 266-286F (130-141C)
5000 feet (1524 meters) - 260-280F (127-138C)
7000 feet (2134 meters) - 255-275F (124-135C)
Brittles. Cold-water test: Hard Crack
Finish temperatures: Sea level (0 meters) - 300-310F (149-154C)
2000 feet (610 meters) - 296-306F (147-152C)
5000 feet (1524 meters) - 290-300F (143-154C)
7000 feet (2134 meters) - 285-295F (141-146C)

The above information was gathered from several sources. It is a good idea to check with local sources for more or specific information on this topic. Colleges and universities, government agencies, local utility companies are all likely to have information and recipes that will help you.

Thanks to Kate in New Mexico for providing much of the information used here.
May 2008

Additional Information:

I live at 9200 ft. We like to say it's 9200 ft ASL (above stress level). My experience is that for "thicker" items, like biscuits, even muffins, I just use a heavier flour (Bread flour for AP or a mix of AP and whole wheat). Cookies continue to defy me. If the recipe was developed for about 5000 ft (Denver) I reduce the sugar by 1/4 cup for each 1 cup in the recipe; if they're my old recipes, I'm still experimenting. I have relied on recipes from neighbors and friends.

Bread is my real passion. I have found that for yeast breads, I reduce the yeast by 1/3. At 6000 ft. my friend reduces it by 1/4. Either that or let the bread rise 3 times. (Flavor develops over time as the bread rises; if it rises really quickly, it won't develop proper flavor.) Also, because, generally, it's drier at altitude than sea level, my bread takes less flour than at lower altitudes.

Rice takes longer; pressure cooker things take longer; jams and jellies have to water bath longer.

Colorado State University extension service has resources online for help.

Contributed to the FareShare Gazette by Sue; 17 May 2008.
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